Cancer arises when cells undergo uncontrolled division and infiltrate neighboring tissues due to alterations in DNA. The majority of these DNA changes, known as genetic changes, occur in specific regions of DNA called genes. Difference between bening tumor and malignant tumor: Benign: 1. Not cancerous 2. Don’t invade surrounding tissue 3. Don’t spread to other … Read more
Vaccination, administering a vaccine for protection against pathogens, is vital for primary prevention. The immune system, while naturally defending against infections, can be overwhelmed by certain pathogens, leading to severe illness. Vaccination involves exposing the immune system to a safe antigenic preparation to recognize and eliminate pathogens in future encounters. Diseases like measles, polio, tetanus, … Read more
Antibodies, or Immunoglobulins (Igs), are glycoproteins with remarkable specificity towards particular antigens. They are generated in response to antigenic stimulation and produced by plasma cells, which originate from B–lymphocytes. These mature plasma cells exhibit an extraordinary production rate, synthesizing antibodies at approximately 2000 molecules per second. Structure of antibody: 1. Antibodies, or immunoglobulins (Igs), are … Read more
Symptoms of typhoid: 1. Initial Signs: Chills, sweating, and weakness may manifest in the early stages. 2. Fever and Gastrointestinal Issues: High fever, skin rashes, dehydration, constipation, and stomach pain are common. 3. General Health Impact: Weight loss, muscle aches, and loss of appetite contribute to overall health deterioration. 4. Advanced Symptoms: Severe headache, delirium/hallucinations, … Read more
To safeguard against waterborne illnesses, one must implement the following precautions. 1. Prioritize consuming fresh and clean water. 2. Always filter contaminated water before consumption. 3. Disinfect water resources to ensure safety. 4. Avoid consuming water from ponds. 5. Practice caution by ensuring water quality before consumption.
Amoebiasis is typically spread through: 1. The fecal-oral route. 2. Contact with unclean hands or objects. 3. Anal-oral contact. 4. Consumption of contaminated food and water. Symptoms of malaria: 1. Experience fever with shivering. 2. Encounter joint pain or arthralgia. 3. Episodes of vomiting. 4. Develop anemia from RBC rupture or haemolysis. 5. Notice haemoglobinuria. … Read more
Ensuring personal and public hygiene is crucial to protect against infectious diseases. Personal hygiene measures encompass various practices: 1. Ensure personal hygiene by maintaining cleanliness in the body. 2. Consume clean drinking water and wholesome foods, including vegetables and fruits. 3. Practice proper waste disposal and manage excreta appropriately. 4. Regularly clean and disinfect water … Read more
1. Every antibody is designed to target a specific antigen. 2. Interaction occurs between antigenic determinants (epitopes), situated on the combining sites of antigens, and the corresponding paratopes on antibodies. 3. The variable regions of antibodies house the antigen-binding sites (paratopes). 4. Minute differences in the variable regions contribute to the high specificity of each … Read more
Antigens on Blood Cells: Blood cells, comprising red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets, exhibit distinct antigens on their surfaces. These antigens play a pivotal role in blood typing and compatibility. 1. Red Blood Cell Antigens (Blood Group Systems): •ABO System: In the ABO blood group system, red blood cells express antigens known … Read more
Each ovule develops within the ovary, connected to the placenta by a small stalk known as the funiculus. The point where the funiculus attaches to the main body of the ovule is termed the hilum. In angiosperms, the prevalent ovule type is anatropous, with the micropyle directed downward and situated next to the funiculus (funicle). … Read more